Social and environmental reporting would benefit from greater stakeholder exclusivity. - Free Essay Example

Social and environmental reporting would benefit from greater stakeholder inclusivity. REFLECTIVE THINKING The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is very modern and now applies to more and more businesses. This topic piqued my interest because a lot of companies in my country have begun to adopt CSR and adopt social and environmental reporting. I am aware of the concept of corporate social responsibility, but I did not know its social and environmental dimensions. I mostly believed that corporate social responsibility is restricted mainly to charity. The more I read about it and discuss about it with other students, the more I realized its wider usefulness. Corporate Social Responsibility concerns actions that businesses do in order to solve problems involving the environment and society. In particular, companies in their business activities as well as in their contacts with other interested parties, bring together social and environmental concerns in a voluntary framework. A company to be qualified as socially responsible must take into account the problems related to the protection of the environment as well as to the development, rights and quality of life of its employees and the society within which it develops. With Corporate Social Responsibility, the business environment is voluntarily regulated, to ensure respect for the problems with the help of management systems regarding the impact on the environment, the support communities in the local context and the creation of a working environment which will ensure justice and security. Over the last five years, Corporate Social Responsibility plays an important role in both large enterprises and the European Commission, as well as in political and non-profit organizations. Several multinational or large companies try to prove that they have managed to integrate CSR in their strategy with great success. Two levels of implementation of Corporate Social Responsibility concern the companies. The first level, known as the initial stage of maturity concerns the big enterprises in Cyprus, where Corporate Social Responsibility is part of the activities of the department of public relations and particularly the field of charity and sponsorship. The second level, known as the maturity of the business, declares that Corporate Social Responsibility is an integral part of corporate policy and strategy. At this stage, there is a department or committee which is responsible for specific activities whose purpose is the achievement of strategic objectives as well as the annual Record of Social Report exclusively for Corporate Social Responsibility. In Cyprus, Corporate Social Responsibility is not at an advanced stage. This is because it may well be that Cyprus is a member of European Union, but the developments in the field of Corporate Social Responsibility do not show any significant progress. F or Cyprus, the environmental dimension of CSR is very important because it is very relevant to tourism, which is the heavy industry of Cyprus. For example, companies from Eastern European countries are more sensitized to Corporate Social Responsibility issues and there is indeed the desire to learn what Corporate Social Responsibility is, to see how they can adapt it to their philosophy, because they know that the global markets are asking for it. Nowadays, experts acknowledge that the Cypriot companies focus mainly on charity activities. The downside, however, is the fact that in Cyprus, there is no plan, no growth prospects and long term commitment for actions made. In addition, social responsibility is not limited to charitable giving, but it also covers the overall compliance with the international federal state and the local laws and legislative acts as well as with the ethical standards and procedures under which the company will operate. Great importance should be given to our awareness in order to function socially responsible, i.e. to approach the issue individually rather than corporately. Economic growth is directly related to the development of society and the environment. For example, if the sustainability of the environment is at risk, which is considered a business function, then this will directly affect the company and its financial results. The fact that CSR is an investment rather than a cost may be shown in the following way: Its a business practice that affects consumer attitudes, depending on their shopping choices. I believe that my involvement with this project helped me understand the importance of corporate social responsibility and how it can be applied to enterprises of my country. In particular, today the countries affected by the economic crisis and the developments that occur daily in the social and economic level, has created an environment of increased corporate responsibility. In this environment, companies seek to operate based on the developments occurring every day, while trying every way to reduce social risks. Based on the information available for liquidity in the economic and social level, firms must be able to understand, when they are able to avert a crisis (what happens when pop) and when to manage it successfully (this happens when the crisis is unpredictable). Corporate Social Responsibility is a strategic tool for managing the crisis. Today, most companies have social responsibilities. The directors think that a business to respond effectively and efficiently in social issues, corporate social policy must be integrated into corporate strategy. To assess how well the business operates in the fields of social responsibility, social auditing has been developed as a preliminary guide. The social audit consists of a series of systematic studies and the evaluation of social performance. It is interested in social influences on quality of life rather than in the economic quality of life. The social audit/reporting, leads to social performance. The benefits derived from a social audit are: It gives the information to assess the effectiveness of the programs on ecology and community development. The managers try to focus their attention on those activities where reports and evaluations are necessary. The existence of social audit seeks to promote concern for the achievement of social performance targets. It provides information that allows management to compare the effectiveness of different social programs. It gives the right to manage, provide information to external groups that rely on the company requirements for social performance (Cowton and Crisp 1998:120). Based on the results of this evaluation, the company can see where improvements are needed and what methods can be applied. I hope that this may be the issue of a future work. INTRODUCTION The field of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has expanded significantly over the last decade both at the international and European level. More and more companies engage in serious efforts to define and integrate CSR into all aspects of their business. These efforts are supported by a growing number of evidence that proves that CSR has a positive impact on business economic performance. New voluntary standards and measurement tools of service are multiplied in number in parallel with the ongoing controversy about whether and how to standardize legal requirements for CSR from the business side. The interested parties now require from the company to apologize for its performance throughout the supply chain and for a set of issues of social responsibility. All the above take place in view of a complex global economy, where there are many social, economic and environmental injustices. In the past, the value of a company was only based on its financial performance. The interested p arties now begin to understand better how the way the operational behavior affects the social, political and natural environment. The consequence of this is a growing pressure from investors, consumers and employees to the businesses, to include social and ecological criteria when taking decisions. CSR involves two basic ideas, the responsibility for reporting (accountability and transparency). Conversely, different groups of stakeholders require from businesses to operate successfully in non-financial sectors, which include human rights, business ethics, environmental practices, corporate contributions, contribution to local community development, corporate governance and labor and discrimination issues (Edgley et al.2009) The social and environmental performance is considered now as most consistent with economic efficiency. For the economic development at local level up to policies on human Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary rights at the international level, companies need to apologize for their actions and their impact. In addition, companies are expected to disclose and communicate their policies and practices, which affect employees, communities and the environment. In the global economy, the companies that meet the requirements of the participants, namely the stakeholders are more likely to achieve long-term financial performance. CSR may be involved in every aspect of business activity. A company is considered a good corporate citizen when it demonstrates a sense of commitment to various stakeholders through socially responsible practices and transparent operations. DEFINITIONS OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY At the international level, many practitioners in CSR seek to define the CSR concept. One of the most important of them is the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), a coalition of 175 businesses, which share a common commitment to sustainable development through three pillars: economic growth, ecological balance and social progress. CSR is defined as the continued commitment by the company to behave ethically and contribute to economic development, whilst improving the quality of life of employees and their families, local community and society at a general level (United Nations 2002). In addition, global non-profit organizations have been developed to promote the concept of corporate social responsibility by offering to their members (companies) information, tools, training, consulting services for the integration of CSR in their business operations and strategy. A significant institution is the Business for Social Responsibility, according to which CSR seems to be the realization of commercial success in ways that honor ethical values and respect people, communities and the natural environment. Through CSR, society address the legal, ethical, commercial and other expectations of the business and take decisions that fairly balance the interests of the interested parties. CSR answers why, when and how the company manages the social, environmental and economic objectives, performance and results, and the relationship among them. In addition, CSR Wire reports that CSR aligns social values with business activities (Kuratko and Morris 2002). It focuses on social, environmental and financial performance, the so-called triple basic principle. The aim is to make business success while having a positive impact on society. Likewise, CSR Europe in an effort to strengthen CSR in companies to achieve profitability, sustainability and human development, points out that CSR concerns the way in which the firm improves its social and environmental impact, so it adds value both for shareholders and for the interested parties. The European Commission in its Green Paper in July 2001 (European Commission 2003) in an attempt to open a public debate and promote a European framework for CSR, describes it as a concept whereby companies integrate, on a voluntary basis, in their activities and contacts with interested parties, social values and environmental worries. The Commission links CSR with the new strategic goal that was set in Lisbon for the current decade: to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion. (European Commission 2003). From its part, the Economic and Social Committee (EESC), supports the European Commission. According to EESC, corporate social responsibility is a complex group of issues that must be addressed in different ways and at depth. The cultural specificities and the legal systems have a direct impact on its implementation. There are differences between geograp hic levels of action (local, national, European, global), among developing and industrialized countries, including large multinational companies, SMEs and small firms as well as among sectors. In addition, apart from the classic hierarchical structure within the company, there are new forms of structure and organization of work such as Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary part-time, telecommuting or online businesses. According to EESC, socially responsible action means that companies implement conscientiously the social rules and make efforts to build a spirit of cooperation. The voluntary decision by a company for taking action on CSR (whether this has to do with the adoption of a code of conduct or map or trademark) includes preparedness and commitment (European Commission 2004). In conclusion, it is noticed that the concept of corporate social responsibility is associated with other considerations and concepts, a fact that facilitates its clarification. Such concepts are the approach of participants stakeholders, business ethics, company culture, corporate governance and the status of corporate citizenship. As a new concept in the business reality, it has not yet acquired a specific, well-established definition. In this paper, corporate social responsibility is defined as the permanent, ethical obligation of companies to combine their contribution to economic growth with the responsible use of environmental and social resources (quality of employees life, respect for human rights, participation in the development of the local community where they operate, protection of the natural environment, structure of consistent and responsible relationships with suppliers and the wider social contribution). Generally, CSR is the voluntary integration of social and environmental values in business activities within the framework of transparency and reporting required by society for companies in the modern world. DIMENSIONS OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Initially, the concept of corporate social responsibility has its internal and external dimensions. The first relates to intra business environment and includes socially and environmentally responsible practices, the combination of which aims at improved competitiveness. Socially responsible practices include: investment in human capital following policies of responsible recruitment, equal pay and stock options to employees, as well as a more diverse workforce to combat discrimination. Their goal is to ensure employability and work, reduce unemployment and combat social exclusion. The health and safety of workers with voluntary control systems and certification schemes of management systems. Having as criteria health and safety, general procurement systems were created, based on uniform requirements regarding training and management systems, implemented by the contractors in the health and safety issues at work. For example, the procurement system of the Danish Social Security provides guidelines that determine the prerequisites for bidding tenders for cleaning companies. In addition, these criteria are included in the existing certification and labelling for products and equipment such as the Swedish system TCO Labeling Scheme, which is a voluntary label for the security of office equipment. The management of change in the operational environment, which now encourages the involvement of all stakeholders by providing information and consultation. The restructuring in a socially responsible manner means that the interests and concerns of all those affected b y the changes and decisions are taken into consideration. At European level, this phenomenon that usually appears as a reduction in personnel or closure of a factory, is evident in many industries, including the industries of steel, coal and shipbuilding. Through CSR companies are responsible for ensuring the employability of their staff (Crane and Matten 2005:167). The environmentally responsible practices are included in practices and policies that seek to reduce resource consumption or pollutant emissions and waste aiming at reducing the environmental impact. In this area, the environmental investments are recognized as double profit opportunities for both the company and the environment. Examples include the Integrated Product Policy, an approach that allows the government to work with companies and take into account the impact of products at all stages of their life cycle (introduction, growth, maturity, decline) and urges business and other stakeholders to discuss in order to find an approach with the best cost benefit analysis, having the effect of creating a strong framework for corporate social responsibility. In addition, EMAS ISO19000, a community management and control plan of the environment, which encourages companies to voluntarily set up management and control systems that promote continuous improvements in environmental perfo rmance. The environmental statement is made public, and it is validated by accredited environmental organizations that verify it. Regarding the second dimension (external), the corporate social responsibility of a business extends beyond the company to the local community. A wide range of stakeholders is involved i.e. shareholders, business partners (suppliers, customers, consumers, contractors), public authorities and NGOs, representing local communities or dealing with the environment (European Multistakeholder Forum 2004). CSR is the integration of businesses in their local environment. The way they contribute to it is through job offers, salaries and social benefits. They are involved in community problems, support charity events, sponsor cultural and sporting events. In addition, the existence of interaction with the local environment leads them to a greater awareness of the environmental protection, since a cleaner environment can facilitate the process, or attract more labour force. Through close collaboration with business partners, enterprises can reduce perplexity and costs while increasing quality. The creation of such relationships leads in the long term to a fair price, conditions and expectations, as well as to quality, reliable delivery or execution. CSR appears in business activities at the area where the business is located. It focuses on the CSR of its suppliers or the dissemination of CSR in small or new innovative companies locally (through venture capital). Finally, as part of CSR, the companies must offer products and services that consumers need in an efficient, ethical and environmentally friendly way. The lasting relationships with customers lead to more profitable enterprises. An important example of CSR is the concept of planning for all, even for consumers with disabilities. The external dimension of CSR is shown in the co-operation of the business with non-governmental organizations, trade unions and public authorities on matters of vital i mportance, such as respect for human and labor rights in international and global supply chains (Holme and Watts 2000). On the one hand, there are national, community, international laws and binding rules, which provide minimum standards for all. On the other hand, there are voluntary codes of conduct, which are voluntary initiatives to complement and promote international labor standards for those who adopt them, as it happens in the various productive sectors (textile, apparel trade). The effectiveness of the latter depends on the proper implementation and verification, and it should be based on ILO conventions (Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work) and OECD (Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises) (European Commission 2004). The verification should be carried out based on defined standards that apply to organizations and individuals that carry the social control. TOOLS OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The growing interest of governments, society and the business world in the concept of CSR has led to a significant increase in the number of management tools, measurement, communication and rewards regarding the performance of corporate social responsibility. These institutions of CSR range from general guidelines and codes of conduct that set ambitious CSR principles, to complex management systems, control and communication tools or examination methodologies (filtration screening) of investments. All these play a key role in providing guidance for sustainable operation, for proper quality management of the processes, systems and practices aiming at sustainable development. SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE MANAGEMENT It includes codes of conduct, management standards and reporting, which help the companies to integrate CSR principles in their strategy and business operations by offering principles, sets of procedures, implementation steps, indicators and methods of measurement, evaluation and reporting. The codes of conduct are innovative and important tools for the promotion of fundamental human, labor and environmental rights, as well as for practices against corruption, particularly in countries where governments fail to reinforce such standards (Holme and Watts 2000). They are an official statement of the principles and business practices of a company. They express statements of minimum standards and a promise of the company to maintain them and demand from contractors, subcontractors, suppliers and recipients to apply them as well. Some examples are (Crane and Matten 2005:166): Intergovernmental Authorities ILO Tripartite declaration of principles concerning multinational enterprises and social policy. ILO Declaration on fundamental principles and rights at work. OECD Guidelines for multinational enterprises (MNEs). United Nations Draft guidelines for companies. Multilateral Codes of Conduct Ethical Trading Initiative. Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights for the extractive sector. Model Codes of Conduct designed by NGOs, trade unions and other organizations Amnesty International Amnesty International human rights principles for companies. United Nations UN global compact. The management standards are a set of frameworks, processes and practices for quality, environment, health and safety as well as the workplace itself (Denison 1990). They are internal tools for businesses and organizations to facilitate the integration of CSR into their activities on a daily basis. There are standards that focus on procedures and standards relating to performance measurement and reporting. Especially the management systems provide models and standards for the way of managing a process or an activity. Typically, large companies adopt them. The above tools improve the strategic management and reliability of the company. Examples of management models (Crane and Matten 2005:170): Standards for the workplace Social Accountability (SA 8000) (on working conditions) ILO-OSH 2001-IOC ILO Guidelines on occupational safety and health management OHSAS 18001 (health in the workplace and safety) Quality Management Standards ISO 9000 (International Organization of Standardization) EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) a model for achieving operational excellence. AA (AccountAbility) 1000. ISO CR MSS (management systems standards for corporate responsibility ISO). Environmental Management Standards EMAS (Eco-management and audit scheme) a voluntary program initiated by the European Commission. ISO 14000. The reports are documents, which announce the results of assessing the social impact of a CSR policy. The demand for greater transparency and social reporting from the business side has led to a recent increase of the interest in sustainability reporting, covering economic, social and ecological aspects. These reports exist since 1970s as a supplement of the annual report (Callaghan and Elkins 1981). Nowadays, with the recognition of the importance of the triple bottom line for sustainable development, social, ethical and environmental issues were added to the reports. Unlike financial reports, sustainability reports include a set of qualitative information, which is difficult to measure, especially in social indicators, which are still at an experimental stage. Regarding the concept of triple bottom line, it should be emphasized that it is the idea according to which the overall performance of a company is measured based on its combined contribution to economic prosperity, environme ntal quality and social capital (Crane and Matten 2005:169). The European Commission (2004) itself has given special attention in this matter. In its notification on Communication on the EU strategy for Sustainable Development - COM (2001) 264 it called publicly traded companies with at least 500 employees to introduce the triple bottom line in their annual statements so that shareholders can measure and evaluate its performance against economic, and social and ecological criteria. Some characteristic examples of initiatives in this area are: Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) with the Guidelines for Reporting (2002), which included reference files, content of reports and indicators for performance. AA1000s AccountAbility Model of results validation (assurance) by the Institute of Social and Ethical Accountability (European Commission 2004). SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION In the context of socially responsible consumption social and environmental signals are used. These terms describe tools based on the market, aimed primarily at consumers and showing that the production of specific product and commercial transactions and procedures that are followed, have respected a given set of criteria and standards. However, consumers today are interested in issues of ensuring the environment, health and safety at work and respect for human rights, particularly on child and forced labor. Overall, these signs are a way to convert concern into positive action and direction of consumer behavior to social and environmental domains. In the modern, globalized economy, the terms fair trade and ethical trade are dominant. The first concept refers to fair procedures, aim at supporting marginalized producers in rural industries and handicrafts, in developing countries (Phatak 1997). These objectives, which are developmental, are achieved through better access to the marke t, ensuring fair prices in the negotiations and stability in the revenue, by providing direct payments or prepayment. The second concept refers to activities by companies aiming at highlighting their moral, social and environmental responsibilities and promoting human rights and decent working conditions in global supply chains and production of products. Some examples are the following (Crane and Matten 2005:170): Organizations FLO International (Fair-Trade Labeling Organizations) world-class organization that sets standards and certification of fair trade. IFAT (International Federation for Alternative Trade) a network of institutions, which aims to provide opportunities, information and technical support and better access to markets. EFTA (European Fair Trade Association) an association of importers aiming at achieving the most fair trade effective imports, promote cooperation and information, awakening of public opinion and decision-makers. Social Signals Belgium Social Label Legal Framework of the Belgian government in 2001 that gave the right to companies to acquire a sign which is used in products produced in a production chain that is compatible with the rules of conduct of the International Labour Organisation. Rugmark Label it concerns the production of carpets in India and aims to eliminate child labor. The participants agree to ban child labor and to allow non-communicated controls at their factories. Flower Label Program aims at ensuring fair labor and environmental conditions in the industry of flower trade, such as respect for the principles of the ILO and the non-use of toxic pesticides and chemicals. Environmental Signals EU ECO LABEL a voluntary programme that started in 1992 to encourage the production and consumption of green products in Europe. It is used in products with reduced environmental impact, in compliance with established standards. These ecological standards are determined by a committee (EU ECO-LABELING BOARD) and take into account all phases of the life of a product from the production up to its use and its dismissal. FOREST STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL the international non-profit organization has launched a global program, which covers forest products and provides a credible guarantee that the product comes from a forest, whose management is assessed and certified in accordance with the agreed social, economic and environmental standards. PAN EUROPEAN FORESTRY CERTIFICATION a voluntary private sector initiative which aims to promote sustainable forest management at the local and national level. SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE INVESTING Through socially responsible investment (socially responsible investment SRI) a variety of approaches, products and tools offered to the social responsibility investors is shown. The socially responsible investment has become very popular in ordinary investors, because it combines financial objectives with their concerns regarding moral, social and environmental issues. This way, it represents a powerful means to change business behaviour, by translating values into positive action and promotion of social and environmental procedures and practices (Holme and Watts 2000). The investment for social purposes supports a specific purpose or activity and their funding through investments. Unlike donations, investors for social purposes are interested in the return of the initial investment, either through reward (for loans) or through shares. In this kind of investment individual investors can be involved. These investors can be either individual investors who are interested in private capital investments or institutional investors for investments within a context which is shaped by institutions and organizations such as pension funds, banks, insurance and asset management companies. There are the following ways for institutional investors to follow their social and ecological values: Through filtering (screening) which concerns the inclusion or exclusion of shares in investment portfolios based on ethical, social or ecological criteria. This can be achieved either by excluding companies involved, for example, in the production of nuclear weapons, or by selecting companies based on the evaluation of their social and environmental performance. Through activism or the involvement of shareholders, where in this case, the investors by using their shareholder identity support their social and environmental concerns and seek ways to influence the behavior of the enterprise through consultation with the management of the company, through resolutions on the annual meetings of shareholders or through disinvestment. By investing in non-conventional financial institutions (banks aiming at developing local communities and other credit institutions), which offer low interest loans to people who would not have access to capital. In this case, economic efficiency is less than the social for investors (cause related investment) (Kuratko and Morris 2002). Products featuring the socially responsible investment (SRI) are as follows: Mutual funds that use environmental, social and moral filters for portfolio selection (Green, Social and Ethical Funds). More and more pension funds invest their money according to social criteria. A variety of indices of sustainability and ethical investment have been designed and launched in stock exchange markets. They reflect and create standards and benchmarks for the performance of the shares of socially responsible companies, that try to become more sustainable. The usefulness of these indicators is to understand the relationship between the socially responsible investment and financial performance and thereby to attract capital. Examples of such indices are the Dow Jones Sustainability Index, FTSE4GOOD, Domini 400 Social Index and Ethical Sustainability Index. Listing Process. When companies wish via public offering to raise capital from the stock markets, they should issue documents such as brochures and business plans that will give to the investors the ability to evaluate the business they wish to invest. This process of revealing is essential for the fair and efficient operation of financial markets and is governed by extensive legislation to ensure that the business reports contain all information necessary for investors to recognise the risks associated with the business, including social and environmental perspectives. Procedures have been published in national and European level. More specifically, the EU Directive has been adopted in July 2003, which sets the framework for the standardization of information that should be revealed, but there is no reference to the disclosure of information regarding social and environmental issues. The socially responsible investment has grown into an emerging market with lots of specialized offi ces for investigation and evaluation of investments by non-financial analysts, and numerous tools and models of different content. For this reason, the European Commission expresses the need for standardization and harmonization of standards and transparency of the used tools. The socially responsible investments to contribute to the strengthening of CSR, should be developed by rating agencies, which can be independent consultants or investment banks SRI departments. Their criteria identify the reasons and factors according to which a socially responsible business achieved competitive advantage and business success. In addition, the creation of a multilateral forum on CSR (which was established in 2004) is proposed. This forum aims to promote transparency and convergence of practices and tools of CSR (Crane and Matten 2005:174). In conclusion, CSR is a concept which was originally associated with the concepts of charity and corporate philanthropy, and the principle of management. Through international, national and corporate initiatives, conventions, norms and codes of conduct, CSR acquired its contemporary form, which includes the internal (socially and environmentally responsible practices) and external dimension (interaction with local communities, business partners, authorities, non governmental organizations). Sectors of the company based on CSR are the socially responsible management (codes of conduct, management standards, reports), consumption (ethical and fair trade, environmental and social labels) and investment (mutual funds, investments of pension funds, publication procedures and indicators to sustainable social and ecological criteria). EPILOGUE GENERAL CONCLUSIONS In summary, the concept of corporate responsibility is difficult to pinpoint. In the present paper, it is accepted that corporate social responsibility is called the integration of social and environmental values in the strategy and activities of the businesses on a voluntary basis. CSR focuses on the triple basic principle , which covers both the financial as well as the social and environmental performance of a business. CSR refers to actions in areas as diverse as human rights, labor rights, environmental protection, involvement in community development and relationship building in the supply chain and with business partners. It is associated with several other concepts. Such are business ethics, which is related to the application of general ethical ideas in the business conduct, the notion of culture, namely the personality of each company, the status of corporate citizenship, under which the business undertakes to manage rights and cases relating to citizenship, corporate governance, which refers to the system of division of power within the organization and is associated with the need for transparency and social reporting and finally, the interested parties (stakeholders), that are involved with their actions to the operation and decisions of the company (Holme and Watts 2000). CSR appeared as a concept in the early 20th century. The fact that the company has a broader role in society was linked to the principle of beneficence and corporate philanthropy (the firm provides voluntary assistance), as well as with the principle of management (the company operates as a social guardian). It is noticed that there is an undertaking of a variety of initiatives by international organizations, businesses, countries and even individuals that are involved in the CSR by respecting human rights, providing guidance as well as to the involvement of companies in social reporting, fighting corruption, ensuring labor rights and protecting the natural environment. CSR has acquired an internal and external dimension. The first dimension concerns socially and environmentally responsible practices within the company, while the second is concerned with the interactive relationship that is created between the company and the various stakeholders such as local communities, business p artners or public authorities. In addition, the modern form of CSR includes three areas, or in other words, three basic tools, which can play an important role in achieving sustainable development. Socially responsible management includes codes of conduct, management and reporting standards, which offer principles, systems, procedures, Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary applications, indicators and methods of measurement, evaluation and reporting. Socially responsible consumption deals with ethical and fair trade, and includes social and environmental signals, that certify the integration of social and environmental criteria into the production process. Finally, the socially responsible investment-is related with mutual funds, investments of pension funds, publication procedures and sustainability indicators with social and ecological criteria (Edgley et al. 2009). The factors, that mainly boosted CSR are associated with the increasing demands of society and public authorities for transparency and social assessment by businesses, particularly after the outbreak of major accountancy scandals. The benefits for a company from the adoption of CSR practices are the improvement of financial performance and the reduction of operating costs, the increase in prestige and positive reputation, the increase of sales and consumer loyalty, the attraction of human resources, the potential for reduced oversight by regulatory authorities, as well as access to capital. For society, an important benefit is that by integrating CSR values the road to achieving sustainable development is opened, an approach that accepts the pursuit of economic growth today while protecting resources for the development of tomorrow and meeting the needs of future generations. On the other hand, CSR entails costs, which concerns the time and costs for investing in CSR policies and tools, particularly from small and medium enterprises, which lack the appropriate expertise and resources. In addition, the fuzzy boundaries of CSR as a new practice, coupled with the lack of legislation and uncertainty as to the credibility and effectiveness of the tools and political action can create additional costs for the company. It is notable that the criticism that CSR has received i.e. that it is a superficial practice, having as a sole aim to beautify the unbridled capitalism and increase corporate earnings without any substantial contribution to social welfare. However, more and more companies adopt CSR policies. It is noticed an integration of practices on the preservation of health and safety at work and on the protection the environment both in developed and in developing countries (Chiquita and Shell), to encourage sustainable farming methods and recycling (Starbu cks Coffee), gender equality and combating racial discrimination in the workplace (Deloitte Touche), campaigns against major diseases (Levi Strauss for the HIV virus), and policies to address ethical dilemmas in the management and corruption (Motorola) . The importance attributed to specific practices and social responsibility, is evidenced by the growing number of tools and measurement indicators, such as the FTSE4Good series of indicators of the well-known firm FTSE, but also to reward socially responsible companies through the lists and awards of organizations, the press and other key stakeholders such as the European Commission (List of 100 Best Workplaces in the EU) (European Commission 2004). Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary In conclusion, it should be noted that corporate social responsibility is at a crossroad. After a decade of development, a reasonable question as to what may be the future of CSR is posed. Is it a trend in the business world, which will soon be over? Will CSR reach full implementation and integration through its establishment in the business strategy and action? Alternatively, will it take another form, by changing the data in the business scene? The visualization of CSR future is a challenge of CSR, but also an opportunity for companies looking to maintain their economic prosperity in an increasingly complex business environment. At the same time, the question arises on how long-term benefit and prosperity for all stakeholders can be achieved. CSR appears as a reality, not just as an option. The future of the world is related to the future of the businesses. Today, corporate responsibility is a fact. The central question facing businesses is how to direct their potential in the service of public interest while preserving and strengthening elements, such as the innovation and competitive advantage. This fact constitutes to the central challenge of the idea of CSR, which in the coming decades should achieve the dual goal for successful businesses and thriving communities, by escaping from the unilateral satisfaction of the interests of shareholders. Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary

Comparing The Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde

Comparative Task Comparing ‘The Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde’ And ‘Frankenstein’ When comparing the similarities and differences between Mary Shelley’s story of ‘Frankenstein’ and Robert Louis Stevenson’s story of ‘The Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde’, it was found that although the characters in both stories suffer an unhealthy obsession/addiction to their scientific work and even though both Frankenstein and Dr. Jekyll had good intentions for their creations, the outcome of the Monster and Mr. Hyde were practically opposites of one another. The characters in both ‘Frankenstein’ and ‘The Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde’ suffer an unhealthy obsession/addiction to their scientific work and revenge. In Stevenson’s story of ‘The Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde’, the character Dr. Jekyll is dominated by his narcotic and relentless need to settle his unhealthy craving for larger quantities of the potion which turns him into the evil and cruel Mr. Hyde. The main protagonist states his fail when he says â€Å"†¦and it was as an ordinary secret sinner that I at last fell before the assaults of temptation.† Throughout the novel and movies produced, there are detailed events in which Mr. Hyde is portrayed as a raving addict. Dr. Jekyll not greeting his friend Utterson, showed the audience that Dr. Jekyll’s lack of the substance sent him spiralling into a sort of depression and ‘down’ period. Like any drug or alcohol addicted person, this w as due to hisShow MoreRelatedDr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde Case Study1621 Words   |  7 Pages1 Inner Demons Although Dr. Jekyll struggled with the noticeable inner demon that was Mr. Hyde, many tend to overlook the true inner demon that initially provoked Dr. Jekyll to create the potion which ultimately lead to his downfall. In Stevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Henry Jekyll was not satisfied with his life, even though he had everything he could ever ask for, and this is when his inner demon took over as he stated, â€Å"Hence it came about that I concealed my pleasures;Read More The Gothic Novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Essay examples1403 Words   |  6 PagesTo what extent can The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde be viewed as a gothic novel? Jekyll and Hyde is a gothic novel. It was written by Robert Louis Stevenson, he got the idea for the story after a dream he had. The word ‘Goth’ is originally from a German tribe and has come to mean ‘barbarian’ and later know as ‘Gothic’. In Gothic Literature certain features are expected. These are supernatural events, have villains and hero characters, strange weather, horror, mystery and deathsRead MoreEssay on Dual Personalities in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Stevenson1313 Words   |  6 PagesDual Personalities in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Stevenson INTRO The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a classic mystery story, enticing to all audiences merely upon it’s suspense alone. When Stevenson first wrote the story (after recalling a dream he had) he had only the intentions of writing such an entertaining tale. Yet at the suggestion of his wife, he decided to revamp the mystery to comment on the dual nature of man and of society in general. I believe that Stevenson is suggestingRead More Personality and the Beast Within in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde981 Words   |  4 PagesPersonality and the Beast Within in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Everyone has a dual personality, two sides, good and evil. Robert Louis Stephenson uses the book to explain this, he wanted people to realise that not only Dr Jekyll carries a double personality, but the other characters in the book too. Also the people reading it must see that they too, are a part of this frightening uncontrollable fact, that there is â€Å"the beast within† us all. Stephenson suggests that allRead MoreComparing Human Nature in Macbeth and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde1596 Words   |  7 PagesDr Jekyll and Mr Hyde CA The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was written in the Victorian Era by Robert Louis Stevenson, this novella dwells into the concept of the duality of human nature. The narrative is extremely fragmented structure due to the use of multiple narrators and through the use of mixed media, in the form of letters and accounts. The inconsistent structure conveys that of a gothic detective story; which were very popular in the Victorian era. Victorian London at the time wasRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1474 Words   |  6 Pagesinterpretation to their existence? In the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Hyde is without a doubt a monster. His appearance is strange, his behavior erratic, and his morals nonexistent. The respectable Dr. Jekyll morphs into Mr. Hyde by consuming an odd potion. In the form of Mr. Hyde, Dr. Jekyll fulfills the dark needs that he has. Yet, that is not really the reason that he appears to be scary to other people. Throughout the book many people describe Hyde as being deformed and creepy in a wayRead MoreHow Does Stevenson Portray the Duality of Man in the Opening Chapters of ‘the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’?1845 Words   |  8 Pagesopening chapters of ‘The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’? Stevenson writes ‘The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’ with the intention of showing the reader the duality of man and explores this through the juxtaposition of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In this novella, Stevenson also uses the environment and setting of the story to represent the contrast between Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In the opening chapters of ‘The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’, the Soho area of VictorianRead MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1126 Words   |  5 Pagesbetween outer and inner worlds, between the rush of experience and the immobility of awareness†. Robert Louis Stevenson’s 1886 novel, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, brilliantly exemplifies the philosophical phenomenon that is the duality of human nature through the 2 main characters that coexist interdependently together, Henry Jekyll and Edward Hyde. According to Webster’s dictionary, the duplicity of human beings is based on the contradictory doubleness of thought, speech, or action;Read MoreDr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde1887 Words   |  8 Pagesperson† when he consumes his particular poison. â€Å"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† is the story of an addict whose inebriated self just happens to have a different name. It does not matter what the solution he drinks for his transformation is supposed to represent, whether alcohol, opium, heroin, or some other substance—he checks off every box for addictive and self destructive behavior. There can be no clearer interpretation of â€Å"Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† than that it is a polemic against the prevalentRead MoreA Comparison of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Fight Club3130 Words   |  13 PagesIntroduction The purpose of my essay is to compare and contrast the novel titled Fight Club, written by Chuck Palahniuk, and the story, dated back to the Victorian age, known as The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, written by Robert Louis Stevenson. I will compare these two works by evaluating how these two authors represent the theme of dual/split personalities within a specific character found in within each of their respective stories. Each author portrays the idea of dual personalities

Facts About Frass (Bug Poop)

Insects do poop, but we call their poop frass. Some insect frass is liquid, while other insects form their frass into pellets. In any case, the insect is eliminating waste from its body through its anus, which meets the definition of poop, for sure. Some insects dont let their waste go to waste. The insect world is filled with examples of bugs that use their frass for food, for self-defense, or even for construction material. Insects That Put Their Poop to Good Use Termites arent born with the gut microbes needed to digest wood, so they first feed on feces from adults, often right from their anuses. Along with the frass, the young ingest some microbes, which then set up shop in their guts. This practice, called anal trophallaxis, is also practiced by some ants. Bess beetles, which also feed on wood, dont have larval jaws strong enough to handle the tough fiber. They feed on the protein-rich poop of their adult caretakers instead. Bess beetles also use poop to construct protective pupal cases. The larvae cant do the work on their own, though. Adults help them form the feces into a case around them. Three-lined potato beetles use their poop as an unusual defense against predators. When feeding on nightshade plants, the beetles ingest alkaloids, which are toxic to animal predators. The toxins get excreted in their frass. As the beetles poop, they contract muscles to direct the flow of feces onto their backs. Soon, the beetles are piled high with poop, an effective chemical shield against predators. How Social Insects Keep the Poop From Piling Up Social insects  need to keep a sanitary household, and  they employ clever housekeeping strategies to remove or contain all that frass. Frass cleanup is usually a job for adult insects. Adult  cockroaches  gather up all the poop and carry it out of the nest. Some wood-boring beetle adults pack frass into older, unused tunnels. In some leafcutter ant colonies, specific ants get the poop removal job and spend their entire lives carting off their familys frass. Being the designated pooper scooper is a thankless job, and relegates these individuals to the bottom of the social ladder. Social bees can hold their poop in for weeks or months at a time.  Bee larvae  have a blind gut, separate from the alimentary canal. The poop simply accumulates in the blind gut through their development. When they become adults, the young bees expel all the accumulated waste in one giant fecal pellet, called the meconium.  Honey bees  ceremoniously drop their mighty larval turds on their first flights from the nest. Termite  guts contain specialized bacteria that sanitize their feces. Their poop is so clean they can use it as construction material when building their nests. Eastern tent caterpillars  live together in silken tents, which quickly fill with frass. They expand their tents as they grow and the poop accumulates, to keep some distance between them and their frass. Insect Poop in the Ecosystem Frass makes the world go round, in some important ways. Insects take the worlds waste, digest it, and poop out something useful. Scientists discovered a link between the rainforest canopy and the forest floor. It was insect poop. Millions of insects inhabit the treetops, munching away on leaves and other plant parts. All those insects also poop, covering the ground below with their frass. Microbes go to work decomposing the frass, releasing nutrients back into the soil. Trees and other plants need the nutrient-rich soil to thrive. Some insects, like  termites  and  dung beetles, serve as primary decomposers in their ecosystems. Termite digestive systems are chock full of microbes capable of breaking down stubborn cellulose and lignin from wood. Termites and other wood-eating insects do the hard part, then pass the significantly decomposed plant bits on to secondary decomposers through their frass. An enormous percentage of forest biomass passes through insect guts, on its way to becoming  new soil. And how about rotting carcasses and animal dung? Insects help break down all the nasty bits in the environment and turn them into something much less objectionable, frass. Most insect poop isnt large enough to contain whole seeds, but poop from big grasshoppers called wetas is an exception to that rule. Scientists found the wetas, which live in New Zealand, can poop viable fruit seeds. The seeds found in weta frass germinate better than seeds which simply fall to the ground. Since the wetas move, they carry the fruit seeds to new locations, helping trees spread throughout the ecosystem.

Analysis Of The Book Goodbye, Columbus - 1586 Words

The Eternal Journey The title of Philip Roth’s novel, Goodbye, Columbus, is symbolic of the journey one must take to define one’s individuality or discover one’s life purpose. Superficially, the title is a reference to the ending lyrics of Ron’s senior yearbook album as well as the physical location of Ohio State University in which Ron Patimkin graduated from. With closer analysis, it becomes evident that the title extends to a much deeper meaning of the overall theme of self-examination and self-identity for the protagonist, Neil Klugman. The title, Goodbye, Columbus, primarily acts as an essential metaphor between the expedition Christopher Columbus takes in search of a westward route to India and the life journey Neil embarks upon to discover his identity both in terms of his socioeconomic status and Jewish heritage. The title both clarifies and foreshadows the fate Neil ultimately realizes as he pursues a relationship with Brenda Patimkin. Christopher Columbus’ main motive of his journey was to discover a shorter passageway to India to trade riches. Similarly, Neil pursues a relationship with Brenda not solely for lust, but more so, as an avenue to identify with the wealthy upper-middle class society of the Patimkins. As Neil drives to visit Brenda for the first time in Short Hills, he realizes in his car that â€Å"the hundred and eighty feet that the suburbs rose in altitude above Newark brought one closer to heaven† (581). For Neil, Short Hill represents a sense ofShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Book Goodbye Columbus Essay993 Words   |  4 PagesI can relate my self with in this class is, Goodbye, Columbus. The story consists of human experiences in different forms I can relate to. One of the prime human experiences that occurred in this text is love. Moreover, discrimination was focused on as well. Even more, the human experience that is vital in this story is moving on from an unfortunate experience rather than allowing it to interfere with their future. The main character in Goodbye Columbus is Neil Klugman. The experiences Neil accomplishedRead MoreLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 PagesAdventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain (1884) Pharaoh, by BolesÅ‚aw Prus (1895) What Maisie Knew, by Henry James (1897)[23] 20th century[edit] The Confusions of Young Tà ¶rless, by Robert Musil (1906) Martin Eden, by Jack London (1909)[24] The Book of Khalid, by Ameen Rihani (1911)[25] Le Grand Meaulnes, by Alain-Fournier (1913) Sons and Lovers, by D. H. Lawrence (1913)[26] Of Human Bondage, by W. Somerset Maugham (1915) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce (1916)[27] Demian:Read MoreFundamental Financial Accounting Concepts13807 Words   |  56 Pagesincluding, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ISBN MHID 978-0-07-802536-5 0-07-802536-2 Vice president and editor-in-chief: Brent Gordon Publisher: Tim Vertovec Senior sponsoring editor: Dana L. Woo Executive directorRead MoreA Doll House by Henrik Ibsen7379 Words   |  30 Pageshis and Noras marriage. After literally dragging Nora home from the party, Torvald goes to check his mail, but is interrupted by Dr. Rank, who has followed them. Dr. Rank chats for a while so as to convey obliquely to Nora that this is a final goodbye, as he has determined that his death is near, but in general terms so that Torvald does not suspect what he is referring to Dr. Rank leaves, and Torvald retrieves his letters. As he reads them Nora steels herself to take her life. Torvald confrontsRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 PagesStrategic Marketing Management Dedication This book is dedicated to the authors’ wives – Gillian and Rosie – and to Ben Gilligan for their support while it was being written. Acknowledgements Our thanks go to Janice Nunn for all the effort that she put in to the preparation of the manuscript. Strategic Marketing Management Planning, implementation and control Third edition Richard M.S. Wilson Emeritus Professor of Business Administration The Business School Loughborough University Read MoreImpact of Science on Society38427 Words   |  154 Pagesof America, an NBC/BBC joint production for the US Bicentennial. Burke’s 10-part television series Connections, which aired in 1979, attracted one of the largest followings ever for a Public Broadcasting Station documentary series, and the companion book was a bestseller in both the UK and the US. The series, which took a year of research and another year to film at more than 100 locations in 22 countries, surveyed the history of technology and social change by tracing the evolution of eight majorRead MoreImpact of Science on Society38421 Words   |  154 Pagesof America, an NBC/BBC joint production for the US Bicentennial. Burke’s 10-part television series Connections, which aired in 1979, attracted one of the largest followings ever for a Public Broadcasting Station documentary series, and the companion book was a bestseller in both the UK and the US. The series, which took a year of research and another year to film at more than 100 locations in 22 countries, surveyed the history of technology and social change by tracing the evolution of eight major

Anthony Storrs A Very Short Introduction Essay - 978 Words

Anthony Storrs A Very Short Introduction is a book written about none other than Sigmund Freud. Born into the Jewish religion of which he had no interest in taking part of, Freud was an exceptional man who was very advanced, aware of his surroundings and stubborn. This man was a psychologist, doctor of medical and the Albert Einstein of psychoanalysis if I should say. Freud had a lot of theorys which everyone along with myself didnt quite agree with them all. Born on the 6th day of may in 1856, a man by the name of Sigmund Freud was not only smart; unique in his ways as a boy. He wouldnt even sit at the dinner table with his family for supper, that had to be done separately from them because during eating times, he†¦show more content†¦During the years of 1885-1886 Freuds train of thought changed; he realized that in order for him to understand hysteria, he would have to study psychology and not neurology. He believed that the main characteristic of the neurotic person was a lack of normal sex, thats ironic for him to say because not one time threw out this book did I hear him speak on his own sex life, which would lead me to think he didnt have children if he hadnt spoken of them. Freud beliefs of young men between the age of four-five in the phallic stage being sexually interested in their mother and aggression towards the father is by far bizarre and disturbing to me. It seems that everything that had to do with neurology in somewhat way lead back to some form of sex or sexuality. In 1892 Freud stopped doing hypnotist practices and changed to free association in order to increase his understanding of neurosis theory. This man believed every symbol in ones dream had to do with something of sex, umbrellas were the symbols of the penis, purses were the symbols of the vagina. Truly dont understand how he came to that consumption but never the less he was unique in his own way of thought. In one instance Freud became upset when he realized that his patents were emotionally attached to him during their sessions, his first though was that it was an erotic attachment. Even though Freud

Tikopia of Melanesia free essay sample

Tikopia of Melanesia Barbara Pritchard Anthropology 101 Instructor Tawny Townsend June 27, 2011 Tikopia of Melanesia Tikopia of Melanesia has been through many different changes in their society. Agriculture also known as agricultural states is their primary mode of subsistence; you may also call them emerging agriculturalists. The island of Tikopia is lead by chiefs which are their traditional ritual leaders. â€Å"Chiefs are the economic focus in the Tikopian society†, (Nowak Laird, 2010).Another name for Tikopians village or community would be chiefdom. In this paper you will read about how, Tikopia of Melanesia is different in their subsistence practices, social change, political organizations, and beliefs and values. Subsistence Practices Tikopia practices a precise method of agriculture. Tikopians search for clear forests and dried swamps, which provide them with irrigated land, access to markets, and trade routes. The empty land allows control over resources. Technology also plays a part in their subsistence practices. Technology may include intensive agriculture (for example, irrigation, terraces, and flood control) and trade infrastructure such as ships, ports, bridges, and roads. In addition, there may be ownership of technology, allowing for control over production and distribution†, (Nowak Laird, 2010, p. 146). Men mainly do the hard work, cleaning forests, building fences, and planting; the women do the gardening, take care of the children, and prepare food. The women and men both play major roles in their subsistence practices. They use balanced reciprocal exchange and redistribution to transport goods and services. Balanced reciprocal exchange is exchange with an agreement with a return of an equivalent item or an item with a greater value. â€Å"Redistribution is tribute, or the products of families’ or individuals’ labor, is collected in a central location and then sorted, counted, and either stored or given away to producers and non producers†, (Nowak Laird, 2010, p. 149). The men build canoes in order to transport their goods and services.While agriculture is the subsistence base for chiefdoms as well as agricultural states, â€Å"clan chiefs are the traditional political and ritual leaders of the â€Å"clan†; they hypothetically own all the land, are key figures in production and distribution, and major agents of social control because as a result of missionary activities, the Tikopians have become Christianized, and ritual advisors are no longer import,† (Firth 197 0). The way they survive their mode of subsistence, has an impact on their social change as well. Social Change The change occurred slowly, but the Christian missionaries transformed the local population throughout Melanesia to Christianity. Over the next thirty years, all of the chiefs in Tikopia and their follower’s had been converted to Christianity; which changed the Tikopians culture forever. This conversion leads to hostility between the Christians and the traditional communities. The conversion to Christianity has changed a lot of things in the Chiefdom communities.In Tahiti, for example, they have had to change the way they know to live in order to make it with a new religion. The change has made their cultural values decease. The coming of Christianity has also changed their beliefs. It took away their dance, music, temples, wood carvings, and more. Not everyone has been able to accept the coming of Christianity into their culture which causes conflict among the people. I am using the etic perspective because I am on the outside looking in. I will never know what exactly goes on.I only know what I read about. In order to know what really goes on, I would have to experience what they have experienced. I could use the emic perspective about how the changing from their original beliefs has affected their lives. I know that any major changes of any sort can be hard to adjust to, especially when you are used to doing things in a traditional or standard manor. Tikopia is considered a ranked society; which means, they are found in environments with many resources’. The chiefs in Tikopians society are known as the economic focus.The chiefs are the owners of the land, making sure that the commoner family groups have equal access to the land for cultivation. The distribution of land is reasonably divided by each family group chief. The land is divided into orchards for growing bananas, coconuts and yam gardens. The crops can only be access through shared agreement by the individual families. â€Å"Typically chiefs hold more land than commoners but the chiefs land is necessary in order for him to fulfill his ritual responsibilities,† (Nowak Laird, 2010). Political OrganizationsThe Chiefdoms have full time and permanent political positions to oversee the regions they govern. A chief is born into his position that is said to be reinforced by supernatural power. Being a chief is said to be sent from the gods; which, provides them with supernatural power of authority over their regions. A chief is â€Å"full time and permanent, outlasting the lifespan of the office holder,† (Nowak Laird, 2010, P. 14, Para. 1). Upon the death or retirement of a chief the office must be filled by his son or next in line for the position.The higher ranking chiefs have control over lesser ranking individuals of who controls a particular territory of a social unit. Although, lesser chiefs collect from those below them each small village has a leader or chief who is akin to and submissive to the head chief in the central community. â€Å"Chiefdoms can vary in their political complexity, some have only one level of political hierarchy; while others have two or even three tiers,† (Nowak Laird, 2010, P. 14, Para. 3). When a paramount chief dies in Tikopia an election is held among the lesser chiefs to replace him. Occasionally, Tikopia chiefs held total power in boundary over their people, particularly over their own clan members, though this power could be adapted by conventional methods of constraining a chief to respond to public opinion. Chiefs were and still are sacred and treated with great respect. Previously, chiefly families tended to form an intermarrying class, but nowadays unions between commoners and the children of chiefs are frequent. Beliefs and Values The original Tikopia religious system was oriented around rituals for various ancestors and gods.With the aim of obtaining such ends as favorable weather, crop productivity, success in fishing, and the curing of illness. Each chief has two sets of advisors, one for each ritual and spiritual affairs. For example, ancestors in genealogical rank-order may be among chiefdom’s supernatural beings, reflecting the social order. They believe that the material and spiritual world cannot be separated. Their religious views are repeated and based on â€Å"seasonal patterns of nature, and they believe that the natural order is impossible to tell apart from the moral and spiritual order,† (Nowak Laird, 2010, P. 1, Para. 1). Tikopia believe in spirit beings such as: ancestors, gods, and spirit powers that had took over human form. Tikopia community, led by their chiefs joined the church, thus drastically changing ceremonies and practitioners. Ceremonies being a major spirit being were worshipped in complex rites, with offerings of food and bark cloth. These ceremonies were performed in which canoes, crops, temples, and people were rededicated to gods and ancestors for protection and wealth. â€Å"Tikopia worked out an accommodation of Christianity that ultimately preserved many of their traditional practices.In some other Pacific Islands, Christian missionaries introduced the idea of competitive giving of money to the church and required members to wear Western-style clothing, practices that required the indigenous people not only to change their spiritual belief systems, but also required them to earn money and enter into nontraditional exchange relationships,† (Macdonald 113-7) Tikopians have become Christianized, and ritual advisors are no longer important. Although, the clans are hierarchically ranked, the chief of the highest ranked clan should be considered as first among equals, rather than as a true paramount chief.The original Tikopia religious system was oriented around rituals for various ancestors and gods, wit h the aim of obtaining such ends as favorable weather, crop productivity, success in fishing, and the curing of illness, and each chief has two sets of advisors, one for each ritual and spiritual affairs. Conclusion Even though, the clans were hierarchically ranked, the chief of the highest ranked clan should be considered as first among equals, rather than as a true paramount chief. Tikopia is lead by higher ranking chiefs, which has control over lesser ranking chiefs that control a particular territory.

Tourism Reduces Poverty- An Argumentative Essay †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Tourism Reduces Poverty- An Argumentative Essay. Answer: Introduction The term poverty denotes the condition in which the basic amenities of a person or a community like food, shelter and clothing are not met. Poverty is of two types-absolute poverty and relative poverty. The term absolute poverty refers to destitution and is a condition when people are unable to meet the sufficient resources (Hagenaars 2017). On the other hand, relative poverty is a condition when people do not enjoy minimum living standards. Given the reference of the report used in this case, the tourism industry has created the most number of employment in the developing countries. It was found that tourism has generated an amount of US$50 billion to USD$260 between the period of 1990 and 2007 for the developing countries. It was found that out of 46 of the 49 LDCs (Least Developing Countries), tourism is the main source of foreign exchange (Gmelch and Kaul 2018). The aim of the paper is to elucidate and support the contention that tourism reduces poverty with a focus on India and employs scholarly evidence to substantiate the argument. The paper sets to argue that tourism is beneficial for the reduction of poverty and also document counter arguments regarding the same. Tourism industry and its potential in the alleviation of poverty Tourism has direct, indirect and induced impacts on tourism. The induced impact of tourism is its contribution through the provision of direct and indirect employment. The impact of tourism has been found to be beneficial for the rise in GNP (Gross National Product) as it creates employment for the multiple stakeholders like the hotels, restaurants, handloom and handicraft industry, flea market, guides and local shopkeepers. Tourism development as an aspect in any country has been studied from the perspective of financial growth or economic modernization. In the area of development, the emphasis of most countries have been on identifying patterns of economic growth that augments the development. There are two critical paradigms of tourism that is related to poverty. One of them is tourism being labour-intensive and provides small-scale opportunities. Secondly, there is a thrust to revive the natural resources and value the cultural heritage which are significant for the marginalized section. Vanegas, Gartner and Senauer (2015) strongly beliee that tourism becomes an inclusive opportunity for women as it generates employment for them. It has been found that countries such as Bolivia, tourism has filled up 60 per cent of the seats; in case of Muslim countries it has been 10 per cent (Chen, Petrick and Shahvali 2016). The service orientation of the tourism industry combined with the emphasis on low-level domestic tasks enhances the possibility of employment for the women as they are largely involved in the employment sector. Tourists visit the country and return to their country, however the income ushered in through the tourists is instrumental for the contribution to the human capital. This generates income that is effective in developing the infrastructure to forge new business that is significant for the for generating income for the growing population in the context of India. Hugo and Nyaupane (2016) are of the opinion that in many developed and developing countries of the world tourism is the vehicle for earning foreign revenue. It also creates direct and indirect employment. Tourism has been reported to contribute to 5 per cent of the worlds GDP (Step.unwto.org 2018). WTTC (World Travel and Tourism Council) have reported that tourism contributes to 12 per cent of the GDP of the world and 40 per cent of the GDP of the developing countries of the world. In 2010, it was reported that tourism contributed to 12 per cent of the total GDP (Sharma and Kumar 2018). Tourism has been accounted for generating 8 per cent of employment and it is predicted to generate employment for 324 million and tourism also accounts for 36 per cent of the service exports in the advanced countries of the world (Brako and Joseph 2017). It is found to be the primary economic exchange for 47 per cent of the worlds economy. . It is also reported that it contributes to 66 per cent of the service exports for the developing countries. It is argued that tourism is considered as a major cause for poverty alleviation, generation of employment and also fosters human development. Tourism has indirect impact on the generation of income and employment. In the context of India, tourism is found to be contributing to one-third of the foreign exchange of the worlds foreign exchange revenue in India. In India, the tourism industry is the most vibrant industry and is predicted to be a multi-million industry. It was found that travel and tourism would generate culminate to 24, 931, 000 jobs for the multiple stakeholders in the tourism industry (Seetanah et al. 2017). This means hotels, travel agents, transportation and airlines will benefit from such a trend. According to Kalaiya and Kumar (2015) Kachchh is touted to be a bastion for immense possibilities to attract tourists from all over the world. There is a robust revival of the tourism sector thus making the Kachchh region a frontrunner in the tourism sector. It has been found that the Rannutsav in Kachchh has indirectly contributed to the livelihood of the local communities. The entry fee alone generated 516955 INR and the footfall of the tourists are 66656 in 2011 that includes NRI , foreign tourists, Gujarati community as well as the non-Gujarati people (Tang, Tiwari and Shahbaz 2016). The activities of hot air balloon and other terrain vehicles lead to the generation of 2.24 lakh INR. Tourism industry and the scope of alleviation of poverty Scholars who staunchly believe in the positive impact of tourism are of the opinion that the tourism industry generates employment for the poor and enable them to earn their livelihood (Antonakakis, Dragouni and Filis 2015). In this light, the PPT (Pro-poor tourism) needs to be discussed. The concept of Pro-poor tourism, also known as PPT, has been credited for generating multiple advantages for the poor. This orientation of tourism has a pro-poor approach as it ensures their growth. This can be witnessed in the creation of part-time employment along with a cluster of different livelihood benefits like access to road, markets, health, potable water and education. Mowforth and Munt (2015) argues that this kind of approach to tourism is not just labour intensive but is inclusive of women and also boosts the informal economy. Apart from private enterprises, the concerned communities, government, NGO and the tourists all have key roles to play in the alleviation of poverty. Irrespective of the size of the country, tourism is considered to provide boost for the generation of finance (Ravallion 2017). Tourism is believed to have strong linkage with other sectors of the economy like fisheries and agriculture. This kind of connection will augment the growth of tourism. Ravallion (2017) is firmly of the opinion that the rise in demand for one sector, it is believed that there will be a growth in the other sectors too like the transport sector. Tourism is premised on the natural resources which are the assets of the poor and therefore can be easily developed. Tourism also involves women who can become important vehicles in the alleviation of poverty. The variegated infrastructure related to the development of tourism like electricity, road and communication are believed to be pertinent for the several rural communities who would otherwise been deprived from the infrastructural provision (Holden 2016). Apart from direct and indirect modes of employment, tourism also has i mplications for induced employment. This underscore on re-expenditure of the income generated through direct and indirect means of employment. High employment opportunities in the tourism sector is contingent on four key areas that includes the presence of low paying jobs, pervasion of temporary and part-time jobs and seasonal intensity (Antonakakis, Dragouni and Filis 2015). Tourism is found to exhaust a series of non-traded goods and services from the local suppliers. Holden (2016) contends that over the past decade, there has been a remarkable proliferation in the tourism industry compared to other industries. The correlation between the alleviation of poverty and tourism is not a new issue but it has existed since 1960s. Countries that veer towards using tourism as a major source of income are found to be growing a faster pace than other competing countries. Another luminous example of reduction of poverty using tourism is the possibility of slum tourism in Dharavi (Nisbett 2017 ). Private players, charitable trust and various NGOs can come together and create tourist itineraries. It will also enable tourists to challenge the stenotypes in India and be aware about the detrimental effects of globalization. Argument against the role of tourism in the alleviation of poverty Studies have shown that tourism might always be in favour of the marginalized communities and poorer section of the society. It is reported that tourism has been in favour of the local elites, expatriate and international and international enterprises therefore generating low income and limiting the scope of employment for the poor. If the framework of tourism is poorly planned, organized and executed then it has potential to destroy the ecological system, it can raise the cost of living for the local communities and can have pernicious effects on the cultural, social and traditional lives of the people. Brako and Joseph (2017) argues that economic growth and development is not the only parameter for the alleviation of poverty. There needs to be a complete reorientation that would advocate the cause and interest of the poor. There needs to be a reconceptualization and reinterpretation in the existing laws, rules, regulations, customs and practices that would play a pivotal role in th e reduction of poverty. Contrary to the popular notion of tourism having the potential to reduce poverty, critics have argued it can lead to the commercial0ization of poverty and expose the concerned poor people to more problems (Nisbett 2017). In case of the Dharavi slum tourism, objections were raised by the government as it demeaning the image of the country in front of the foreign tourists and could counter the benefits reaped through tourism. Tourism can pose threat if it generating employment for one sector like fisheries and agriculture and is limiting the opportunities for other sectors. This leads to the condition of employment distortion. In case, technical staff and expatriate managers are employed at a higher rate, the local communities may express resentment on their loss. Another negative aspect related to tourism is related to the seasonal nature of tourism and therefore, it is not a sustainable option for the poor throughout the year (Mowforth and Munt 2015). Tourism poses threat to the destruction of cultural assets and the degradation of the cultural resources. In the broader context of the global issues related to the depletion of the resources and degradation of the environment, tourism can have negative effect on the environment. As noted by scholars, tourism as an industry demands a lot of expenditure and therefore, the lack of engagement of the poor can reduce the attraction of tourism from the poor destinations. Therefore, the income that would be generated would not benefit the poor but the affluent and well-off sections of the society as consistent with the trickle effect. Since tourism is directly proportional to the socio-cultural, political, environmental and economic condition, the absence of social security and insurance can push the poor towards more vulnerable condition (Vanegas, Gartner and Senauer 2015). This would be especially in a situation when there would be the downswing of demand. Tourism may also lead to the increase in crime like drug pedalling and trafficking. Many poor localities lack the adequate transport and communication that is main basis of support for the growth of tourism Conclusion The main argument of the essay was that the tourism industry plays a significant role in alleviation of poverty. The tourism industry creates employment for the local communities and provides them an opportunity to introduce their culture and talent to the tourists. For the developing countries, especially there is a need to boost the tourism industry and tap the benefits reaped through it as foreign exchange will increase the Gross Nation Product (GNP) of the country. The Kachchh region in Gujarat is a luminous example in this line as it has created benefits for multiple stakeholders. However, thrust on tourism to alleviate poverty can also have its detrimental effects. The advantages reaped through tourism might be limited to the affluent and well-off sections of the society and the benefits are never reached to the poor. Tourism can also pose threat to the cultural assets and natural resources of the poor communities and heighten their problems. The seasonal nature of the industry will not incur sustainable benefits for the poor, therefore exacerbating their conditions in the lean season. Since tourism is contingent on the improvement in transport and communication, poorly developed regions inhabited by the local communities will not be able to reap the benefits incurred through tourism. References Antonakakis, N., Dragouni, M. and Filis, G., 2015. How strong is the linkage between tourism and economic growth in Europe?.Economic Modelling,44, pp.142-155. Brako, P. and Joseph, S.T., 2017. Study on How Economic Reforms Have Affected Tourism in India over the Decade. Chen, C.C., Petrick, J.F. and Shahvali, M., 2016. 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